The Anthropology of Latin America and the Caribbean Reflection papers Essay - 1

The Anthropology of Latin America and the Caribbean Reflection papers - Essay Example Candomblà © is a religion based on Africa beliefs which originated from Brazil. On the other hand is Santeria, which is an Afro-Caribbean syncretic religion with its origin in Cuba. Voodoo is a syncretic religion practiced mainly in Haiti and Haitian diaspora. It is also in Brooklyn in the United States (Sanabria 208). There are various religious practices adopted by people in Latin America. An individual’s religious belief for a long time have been influenced by the communal interaction. Popular Catholicism had been a religious belief upheld mostly in the Latin America where they majorly believed that catholic was the only religious belief that should be followed by all. They believed only in popular Catholicism because it intertwined languages of popular religion on the primary Catholic subcontinent. Catholic religion got to be referred to as the popular Catholicism because it was the only religion that existed. Other religions like the Anglican Church came into existence years after. The people who protested against the catholic religious faith were viewed as protesting against the religion. As a result, they were called Protestants for straying from the popular religion. Protestantism had a small following but with time, more people joined Protestantism because they were not contented w ith how the popular Catholicism was being run (Sanabria 183-7). The topic on religion left me stunned and hypnotized. Who, what and how did those who start the popular Catholicism come up with all the structures followed in the religion? How could some few individuals convince several others to follow the structures they formulated for their religion? With the uprising of the Protestantism, a few people transformed to the new religion. The initiators of the protesting religious group faced several challenges but emerged triumphant when Queen Elizabeth I created Anglican Church that was a blend of protestant belief and Catholic rituals. Since many

Social reformers Essay Example for Free

Social reformers Essay 1. Gautama Buddha, also known as SiddhÄ rtha Gautama, or simply the Buddha, was a sage on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. Buddha means awakened one or the enlightened one. Buddha is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha of our age. Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Sramana (renunciation) movement common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and KoÅ›ala. The times of Gautamas birth and death are uncertain: most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE, but more recent opinion dates his death to between 486 and 483 BCE or, according to some, between 411 and 400 BCE. However, at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddhas death. These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all other historians. Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition, and first committed to writing about 400 years later. Primary biographical sources The primary sources for the life of SiddhÄ rtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara SÃ… «tra, MahÄ vastu, and the NidÄ nakathÄ . Of these, the Buddhacaritais the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet AÅ›vaghoá ¹ £a, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE. The Lalitavistara SÃ… «tra is the next oldest biography, a MahÄ yÄ na/SarvÄ stivÄ da biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The MahÄ vastu from the MahÄ sÄ Ã¡ ¹Æ'ghikaLokottaravÄ da tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniá ¹ £kramaá ¹â€¡a SÃ… «tra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the NidÄ nakathÄ  is from the TheravÄ da tradition in Sri Lanka, was composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoá ¹ £a. From canonical sources, the JÄ takas, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The JÄ takas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts. The MahÄ padÄ na Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautamas birth, such as the bodhisattvas descent from Tuá ¹ £ita Heaven into his mothers womb. Nature of traditional depictions Queen MÄ yÄ  miraculously giving birth to SiddhÄ rtha. Sanskritpalm leaf manuscript. NÄ landÄ , Bihar, India. PÄ la period Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the MahÄ vastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such in conformity with the world; omniscience, and the ability to suppress karma. Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of SiddhÄ rtha Gautamas life by omitting the traditional supernatural eleme nts of his early biographies. Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human: It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahÄ puruá ¹ £a, superman; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the MahÄ parinibbÄ na Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so. The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddhas time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[27][full citation needed] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that SiddhÄ rtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[28][dubious – discuss] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death must be true. Biography Conception and birth Purported birthplace of Gautama Buddha in Lumbini, a holy shrine also for Hindus, who believe Buddha is the 9th of 10 Dashavataras of Vishnu. Most scholars regard Kapilavastu, present-day Nepal, to be the birthplace of the Buddha.Other possibilities are Lumbini, present-day Nepal Kapileswara, Odisha, present-day India; and Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India. According to the most traditional biography, Buddha was born in a royal Hindu family to King Ã…Å¡uddhodana, the leader of Shakya clan, whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddhas lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (MÄ yÄ devÄ «) and Suddhodanas wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her fathers kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree. The day of the Buddhas birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak. Buddhas birth anniversary holiday is called Buddha Poornima in India as Buddha is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddhas mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (PÄ li: Siddhattha), meaning he who achieves his aim. During the birth celebrations, the hermit seerAsita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man. By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asitas hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[32]Kaundinya (Pali: Kondaà ±Ãƒ ±a), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha While later tradition and legend characterized Ã…Å¡uddhodana as a hereditarymonarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Iká ¹ £vÄ ku (PÄ li: OkkÄ ka), many scholars think that Ã…Å¡uddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy. Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.At the time, many small city-states existed in Ancient India, called Janapadas. Republics and chiefdoms with diffused political power and limited social stratification, were not uncommon amongst them, and were referred to as gana-sanghas. The Buddhas community does not seem to have had a caste system. It was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism. Early life and marriage Departure of Prince Siddhartha Siddhartha was born in a royal Hindu family.[30] He was brought up by his mothers younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[38] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Ã…Å¡uddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering. When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named YaÅ›odharÄ  (PÄ li: YasodharÄ ). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named RÄ hula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not lifes ultimate goal.[38 ] Departure and ascetic life. The Great Departure of Siddhartha Gautama, surrounded by a halo, he is accompanied by numerous guards, maithuna loving couples, and devata who have come to pay homage; Gandhara, Kushan period Prince Siddhartha shaves his hair and becomes an ascetic. Borobudur, 8th century At the age of 29, the popular biography[which?] continues, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his fathers efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome ageing, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.[39] Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. Its said that, the horses hooves were muffled by the gods[40] to prevent guards from knowing of his departure. Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisaras men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment. He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation.[41][42][43] After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ä€rÄ Ã¡ ¸ a KÄ lÄ ma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practise, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka RÄ maputra).[44] With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.[45] Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the seasons plowing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhÄ na. Awakening See also: Enlightenment in Buddhism The Buddha surrounded by the demons of MÄ ra. Sanskritpalm leaf manuscript. NÄ landÄ , Bihar, India. PÄ la period According to the early Buddhist texts,[web 6] after realizing that meditative jhana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didnt work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[web 6]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.[web 6] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[web 7] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[web 7] Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[46] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[46][47] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or Awakened One (Buddha is also sometimes translated as The Enlightened One). According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the Four Noble Truths,[47] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described NirvÄ na as the perfect peace of a mind thats free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[47] or defilements (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the end of the world, in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha. According to a story in the Ä€yÄ cana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the PÄ li and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, BrahmÄ  Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach. Formation of the sangha Dhà ¢mek Stà »pa in Sà ¢rnà ¢th, India, site of the first teaching of the Buddha in which he taught the Four Noble Truths to his first five disciples After his awakening, the Buddha met two merchants, named Tapussa and Bhallika, who became his first lay disciples. They were apparently each given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died. He then travelled to the Deer Park near VÄ rÄ Ã¡ ¹â€¡asÄ « (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saá ¹â€¦gha: the company of Buddhist monks. All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000. Travels and teaching Buddha with his protector Vajrapani, GandhÄ ra, 2nd century CE, Ostasiatische Kunst Museum For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. From the outset, Buddhism was equally open to all races and classes, and had no caste structure, as was the rule for most Hindus in the-then society. Although the Buddhas language remains unknown, its likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization. The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the vassana rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them. The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddhas two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha. Upon hearing of his sons awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautamas (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message. Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying: Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms The Buddha is said to have replied: That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddhas cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant. Of the Buddhas disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna. In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant. The kings death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow. Assassination attempts According to colorful legends, even during the Buddhas life the sangha was not free of dissent and discord. For example, Devadatta, a cousin of Gautama who became a monk but not an arahant, more than once tried to kill him. Initially, Devadatta is alleged to have often tried to undermine the Buddha. In one instance, according to stories, Devadatta even asked the Buddha to stand aside and let him lead the sangha. When this failed, he is accused of having three times tried to kill his teacher. The first attempt is said to have involved him hiring a group of archers to shoot the awakened one. But, upon meeting the Buddha, they laid down their bows and instead became followers. A second attempt is said to have involved Devadatta rolling a boulder down a hill. But this hit another rock and splintered, only grazing the Buddhas foot. In the third attempt, Devadatta is said to have got an elephant drunk and set it loose. This ruse also failed. After his lack of success at homicide, Devadatta is said to have tried to create a schism in the sangha, by proposing extra restrictions on the vinaya. When the Buddha again prevailed, Devadatta started a breakaway order. At first, he managed to convert some of the bhikkhus, but Sariputta and Maudgalyayana are said to have expounded the dharma so effectively that they were won back. Mahaparinirvana The Buddhas entry into Parinirvana. Sanskritpalm leaf manuscript. NÄ landÄ , Bihar, India. PÄ la period The sharing of the relics of the Buddha, ZenyÃ… mitsu-Temple Museum, Tokyo According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ä€nanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha.[web 8] Dr Mettanando and Von Hinà ¼ber argue that the Buddha died of mesentericinfarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning.[48][note 11] The precise contents of the Buddhas final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns. Ananda protested the Buddhas decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of KuÅ›inÄ ra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy: 44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds—the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of Eat, drink, and be merry! The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddhas final words are reported to have been: All composite things (Saá ¹â€¦khÄ ra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence (Pali: vayadhammÄ  saá ¹â€¦khÄ rÄ  appamÄ dena sampÄ dethÄ ). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or Dalada Maligawa in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present. According to the PÄ li historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the DÄ «pavaá ¹Æ'sa and MahÄ vaá ¹Æ'sa, the coronation of Emperor AÅ›oka (PÄ li: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese (Ã¥  Ã¥â€¦ «Ã©Æ' ¨Ã¨ «â€" and éÆ' ¨Ã¥Å¸ ·Ã§â€¢ °Ã¨ «â€"), the coronation of Emperor AÅ›oka is 116 years after the death of Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddhas passing is either 486 BCE according to TheravÄ da record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddhas death in TheravÄ da countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor AÅ›oka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddhas death is 13 May 544 BCE,[49] whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.[50] At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha. While in Buddhas days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, ShÄ kyamuni, ShÄ kyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana as Arihant, BhagavÄ /Bhagavat/BhagwÄ n, MahÄ vira,[51] Jina/Jinendra, SÄ str, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as TathÄ gata. Relics After his death, the Buddha was cremated and the ashes divided among his disciples. According to the PBS series Secrets of the Dead, an urn containing these was discovered in a stupa at Piprahwa near Birdpur [historical British variant as Birdpore], a Buddhist sacred structure in the Basti district of Uttar Pradesh in India by amateur archaeologist William Claxton Peppe in 1898. They were given to the King of Siam (Thailand) a couple of years later, where they still reside. Physical characteristics Main article: Physical characteristics of the Buddha GandhÄ ran depiction of the Buddha from Hadda, Afghanistan; Victoria and Albert Museum, London An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have the 32 Signs of the Great Man. The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive.(D,I:115). It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotamas appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotamas senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant. (A,I:181) A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by Buddhas physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances. Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikayas Lakkhaá ¹â€¡a Sutta (D,I:142).[52] In addition, the Buddhas physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddhas first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, NarasÄ «ha GÄ thÄ  (The Lion of Men).[web 10] Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.[53] Nine virtues The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka.[54] Recollection of the nine virtues of the Buddha is a common Buddhist devotional practice, it is also one of the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid done the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge. Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened Reclining Buddha in Jade Temple, Shanghai Some scholars believe that some portions of the Pali Canon and the Ä€gamas contain the actual substance of the historical teachings (and possibly even the words) of the Buddha.[55][56] Some scholars believe the Pali Canon and the Agamas pre-date the MahÄ yÄ na sÃ… «tras.[57] The scriptural works of Early Buddhism precede the Mahayana works chronologically, and are treated by many Western scholars as the main credible source for information regarding the actual historical teachings of Gautama Buddha. However, some scholars do not think that the texts report on historical events.[58][dubious– discuss][59][60] Hajime Nakamura writes that there is nothing in the traditional Buddhist texts that can be clearly attributed to Gautama as a historical figure:[61] [I]n the Buddhist texts there is no word that can be traced with unquestionable authority to Gautama ÅšÄ kyamuni as a historical personage, although there must be some sayings or phrases derived from him. Some of the fundamentals of the teachings attributed to Gautama Buddha are: The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this; The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration; Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process; Rejection of the infallibility of accepted scripture: Teachings should not be accepted unless they are borne out by our experience and are praised by the wise. See the Kalama Sutta for details; Anicca (Sanskrit: anitya): That all things that come to be have an end; Dukkha (Sanskrit: duá ¸ ¥kha): That nothing which comes to be is ultimately satisfying; AnattÄ  (Sanskrit: anÄ tman): That nothing in the realm of experience can really be said to be I or mine; NibbÄ na (Sanskrit: NirvÄ na): It is possible for sentient beings to realize a dimension of awareness which is totally unconstructed and peaceful, and end all suffering due to the minds interaction with the conditioned world. However, in some Mahayana schools, these points have come to be regarded as more or less subsidiary. There is disagreement amongst various schools of Buddhism over more complex aspects of what the Buddha is believed to have taught, and also over some of the disciplinary rules for monks. According to tradition, the Buddha emphasized ethics and correct understanding. He questioned everyday notions of divinity and salvation. He stated that there is no intermediary between mankind and the divine; distant gods are subjected to karma themselves in decaying heavens; and the Buddha is only a guide and teacher for beings who must tread the path of NirvÄ Ã¡ ¹â€¡a (PÄ li: NibbÄ na) themselves to attain the spiritual awakening called bodhi and understand reality. The Buddhist system of insight and meditation practice is not claimed to have been divinely revealed, but to spring from an understanding of the true nature of the mind, which must be discovered by treading the path guided by the Buddhas teachings. Other religions Buddha depicted as the 9th Avatar of god Vishnu in a traditional Hindu representation Main article: Gautama Buddha in world religions In Hinduism, Gautama is regarded as one of the ten avatars of God Vishnu.[note 6] The Buddha is also regarded as a prophet by the Ahmadiyyas[62][63][64] and a Manifestation of God in the Bahà ¡Ãƒ ­ faith.[65] Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.[66] The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the life of the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisatva via Arabic BÃ… «dhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph.[67] The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha.[68] Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) — though not in the Roman Missal — and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August). 2. Annabhau Sathe Despite lack of formal education, Sathe wrote in Marathi 35 novels, one among which was Fakira (1959). Fakira, which is currently in its 19th edition, received a state government award in 1961. There are 15 collections of Sathes short stories. A large number of his short stories have been translated into many Indian and as many as 27 non-Indian languages. Besides novels and short stories, Sathe wrote a play, a travelogue on Russia, 12 screenplays, and 10 ballads powade(Marahti). Sathe wrote directly from his experiences in life, and his novels celebrate the fighting spirit in their characters who work against all odds in life. Early life Annabhau Sathe was born in the village of Wategaon near Sangli in a family belonging to the Dalit [[Mang [Hindu] (caste)|Mang]] community. (The community has been identified by the Indian government as a SCscheduled caste.) Poverty had prevented Sathe from obtaining formal education. His brother Shankarbhau recounts in his biography of Sathe, titled Majhe Bhau Annabhau, that the family members worked as laborers at the site of Kalyan tunnel when it was being constructed. Writings Lok Rajya, a Maharashtra state government fortnightly, published on 1 November 1993, a special commemorative issue concerning Sathe. The state government also issued in 1998 a collection of his works under the title Lokshahir Annabhau Sathe Nivadak Sahitya.Amartya shinde and Aditya Shinde,Nerul Navi Mumbai 706 also having good information regarding Annabhau Sathe and his relations with Famous Film Actor Balraj Sahani. Other achievements To generate social awareness, he organized stage performances of powade and tamasha, ethnic dances chiefly performed by women, which are popular in rural Maharashtra. He produced 14 tamasha shows. In the late 1940s, the then Home Minister of the Bombay state government Morarji Desai had banned tamasha shows, but Sathe courageously defied the ban by renaming them as lokanatya. People in Maharashtra conferred the epithet lok shahir on Sathe. On the issue of a postage stamp of Anna Bhau Sathe at Chembur, Mumbai minister Pramod Mahajan called Anna as a saint of Maharashtra. Sathe was an important mobilizer in the Samyukta Maharashtra movement. He used the medium of powade to great effect in that movement. Sathe was attracted to communism and had visited USSR. He was a founder member of the Lal Bawta Kalapathak of the Communist Party in Maharashtra. Sathe lived a life of destitution. After spending 22 years in a Ghatkopar (west), chirag nagar slum, Sathe moved to a modest house in Goregaon which the state government provided him in 1968, one year before he died. External links http://www.manase.org/maharashtra.php?mid=68smid=23pmid=8id=800 Authority control VIAF: 13245460 {{Persondata | NAME = Sathe, Annabhau | ALTERNATIVE NAMES = | SHORT DESCRIPTION = Indian writer | DATE OF BIRTH = August 1, 1920 | PLACE OF BIRTH = | DATE OF DEATH = July 18, 1969Tukaram alias Annabhau Sathe was born in the village of Wategaon near Sangli in a family belonging to the Dalit Matang community. on 1st August 1920 (The community has been identified by the Indian government as a scheduled caste.) There are 15 collections of Sathes short stories. A large number of his short stories have been translated into many Indian and as many as 27 non-Indian languages. Besides novels and short stories, Sathe wrote a play, a travelogue on Russia, 12 screenplays, and 10 ballads powade(Marahti). Sathe wrote directly from his experiences in life, and his novels celebrate the fighting spirit in their characters who work against all odds in life. Lok Rajya, a Maharashtra state government fortnightly, published on November 1, 1993, a special commemorative issue concerning Sathe. The state government also issued in 1998 a collection of his works under the title Lokshahir Annabhau Sathe Nivadak Sahitya. Other achievements Sathe worked among the poor. To generate social awareness, he organized stage performances of powade and tamasha, ethnic dances chiefly performed by women, which are popular in rural Maharashtra. He produced 14 tamashashows. In the late 1940s, the then Home Minister of the Bombay state government Morarji Desai had banned tamasha shows, but Sathe courageously defied the ban by renaming them as lokanatya. People in Maharashtra conferred the epithet lok shahir on Sathe. on the Occasion of Postage stamp of Anna Bhau Sathe at Chembur,Mumbai Honrable minister Mr.Pramod Mahajan, called Ann as A saint of Maharashtra. Sathe was an important mobilizer in the Samyukta Maharashtra movement. He used the medium of powade to great effect in that movement. on the same occasion he sung a Chakkad as Mazi Maina Gavavar Rahili Mazya Jiwachi hottiya Kahili-edited by Prof. Balaji Shinde and Amartya shinde,Nerul Navi Mumbai-706 Sathe was attracted to communism and had visited USSR. He was a founder member of the Lal Bawta Kalapathak of the Communist Party in Maharashtra. Also Annabhu sathe was the member of Matang Samaj Kaminty at Satara and Sagli Personal life Sathe lived a life of destitution. After spending 22 years in a Ghatkopar (west) chirag nagar slum, Sathe moved to a modest house in Goregaon which the state government provided him in 1968, one year before he died. Honors Many cultural organizations and roads in Maharashtra have been named after Sathe. Shahir Bapu Pawar (Solapur, Contact no 8805500620) have written song on Annabhau Sathes life release Adio cassettes CDs also Death-11th July 1969 | PLACE OF DEATH = }}

Social Promotion VS. Retention Essay -- Essays Papers

Social Promotion VS. Retention Abstract Social promotion and retention are used for various reasons. Retention is implemented when students have not met the general requirements to begin the next grade. The question that will be addressed is how do social promotion and retention differ? The overall meaning of both will be addressed to give the reader a better understanding of the two. Social promotion is the practice of promoting a student to the next grade level even if the minimum academic factors have not been satisfied. Retention is the approach that is most widely practiced. This is the retention of a grade to reinforce academics. The pros and cons, static’s, and drop out rates will be discussed. All of these factors will be addressed so that the reader can be aware of the opinions on the issues. This critical issue of Social Promotion and retention is a hard one to figure out. Exactly what is social promotion? Social Promotion is the practice of promoting students to the next grade level regardless of their academic progress. How serious id this issue? It is so serious that California, Delaware, South Carolina and Wisconsin have all passed laws forbidding the practice and in effect requiring schools to reinstate retention. What exactly is retention? It is the practice of holding back students to repeat a grade if they have not successfully met the requirements to go to the next grade level. This has been the practice of school systems for many years and The National Center for Education Static’s show that 16.8% of seniors have repeated at least one grade. The most frequently repeated grades were kindergarten through second. Does retention work? In the majority of studies done they... ...es to Help Students Succeed, North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Kelly, Karen (1) Kelly, K. (1999). Retention vs. Social Promotion: Schools Search for Alternatives . Harvard Education Letter. Albany, NY. Ruldolph, Angela (1) Johnson, D. and A. Ruldolph (2001). Beyond Social Promotion and Retention-Five Startegies to Help Students Succeed, North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Teachers, American Federation of (1) Teachers, A. F. o. (1997). Taking Responsibility for Ending Social Promotion: A Guide for Educators and State and Local Leaders. U.S. Department of Education. Thompson, Charles L. - Cunningham, Elizabeth K. (1) Thompson, C. L.-C., Elizabeth K. (200-12-00). Retention and Social Promotion: Research and Implications for Policy. ERIC Digest. New York. 161.

“Three Men in a Boat and Nothing of the Dog” Analyses

â€Å"Three men in a boat and nothing of the dog† The story I am going to screen is entitled â€Å"Three men in a boat and to say nothing about the dog†. It was written by a famous English writer Jerome Klapka Jerome. He born in Walsall, Staffordshire, England on May 2nd, 1859, in the family of a preacher and coal mine owner. Leaving school at the age of fourteen after his mother's death, Jerome worked such diverse jobs as a railway clerk, a journalist, and a schoolmaster. He also tried himself as an actor, playwright, editor, and at last he found fame through his writing.His first book â€Å"On Stage and off† was published in 1888. In 1889, Jerome published the humorous Three Men in a Boat. It might be interesting to know that these three characters are based on Jerome himself and two real-life friends, George Wingrave and Carl Hentschel, with whom he often took boating trips. The dog, Montmorency, is really fictional but, Jerome K. Jerome admits that in all Eng lishmen, contains an element of the dog. What brought him fame was his original idea and using simple plot structure which helps readers to understand and be involved in the story.Let me introduce a brief plot of the story for the film: As the beginning of the story three main characters come to Sonning, a town on the river Themes, where they decide to put up for the night. After that friends have plenty of time that is enough to cook a supper. In the inciting incident, they make up their mind to prepare an Irish stew; therefore, it would be a good opportunity for gentlemen to eat all odds and ends. Next we’ll show the process of cooking in details, and it is used as rising actions of the story.In climax, Montmorency, the dog, brings a dead rat, which is the point of a little discussion. Finally, all the characters are satisfied with the supper that means that the Irish stew was very tasty and delicious. To understand how the friends successfully managed to prepare an Irish s tew we should analyze the characters of each hero. . As for George, he is household and a leader, because he proposed to make an Irish stew. He gathered woods and made a fire, it means that he’s an experience cooker. In addition, he is creative, that is proved by his adding ll odds and ends to the stew. And as it’s said, every housekeeper has his own recipe of the Irish stew, so George used all his knowledge and imagination and invented his own recipe. He is hard-working and level-headed. Moreover he determined and economical; it can be seen in all his actions and metaphor words: â€Å"Oh, that won’t do! You’re wasting them. You must scrape them. † To say more, George refused the idea of adding a dead water rat to the stew, and that’s enough to say that he is a very conservative gentleman.To tell about Harris, I can say that he is totally emotional, open-minded and joyful. Besides, he is sociable, cheerful, enthusiastic and talkative. Harris suggested adding the water rat, brought by Montmorency. He must be very extravagant and experimental, so even judge George to be a man hampering the world’s progress. Harris’s partner of scraping and peeling potatoes was easy-going and single-minded narrator. I think he is calm and flexible, and at the same time is very enthusiastic, talkative and romantic, judging by the way he describes the sonning and nature.I think they are all romantic because they were all inspired by the idea of making this great trip. And they enjoy and admire the nature, new places and their adventures. To show their joy characters there’s such hyperbole is used â€Å"I should never have thought that peeling potatoes such an undertaking†. Then the author uses such stylistic devise as metaphor, for example ‘they stood in the potato-scrapings half-smothered†. Judging by dialogues of the main characters of the story – Harris, George and the narrator, it’s clearly that they are intelligent and well-mannered people.The author uses indirect speech in order to male characters contrast. He avoids stock characters; they are quite individual and original. It’s hard to identify a development of the characters, they just try to travel and learn how to survive without early experience. The author describes the actions in ironical and humorous way. The method of presentation is subjective and the reader sees everything from first-person narration. Also that method helps the readers to feel the atmosphere of the story and imagine themselves on the heroes’ place.Every use of language devices presents how Mr. Klapka Jerome talented and skillful. In fact, Jerome K. Jerome is famous for his art of story-telling, the basis of our screen adaptation is the way the author presents the situation. The atmosphere of the story is warm and his vivid style and humour which is generally expressed in laughter-provoking situations often based on mi sunderstanding created a bright and comfort mood and witty and ironic tone. The story is full of such stylistic devises as metaphors, epithets, similes and hyperboles.And they help us to image town and understand what the characters felt at that time. While describing Sonning the narrator uses simile â€Å"it’s more like a stage village than one built of bricks and mortar†; it’s also used metaphor â€Å"every house is smothered in roses† to show how beautiful houses were. The language of the story is rich in colloquial idioms and phrases. Each sentence contains a complete thought, and the writer makes it a point to have all the causes of events fully expressed, without leaving anything for guesswork on the reader’s part.The author’s manner is highly emotional and in that time is easy to read and understand the topic of the story. The idea of our film would be real friendship. It is proved by the title of the story and the behavior of the mai n characters, which respect each other and stay friends in spite of little quarrels. The main idea is not expressed in a straightforward categorical manner, but it’s clear how important to stay friends during long period of time, don’t hurt each other and be ready to help in any case.And the river Thames seems to symbolize the life-stream and the boat is like friendship itself that helps us to avoid and solve problems. And in conclusion I’d like to say that our film would teach people to be friendly and look at problems in a humorous way, that’s very important in our life and what more not to turn the life into a routine. We are people and should not only work, spend and earn money but we also should develop, travel and pay attention to life values.

Computers Are Replacing More and More Jobs

Living today in the most advanced age of technologies, humans have benefited from computers. We cannot deny the fact that computers play a crucial role in the various aspects of our lives. We get a lot of help from computers and believe that computers could make people’s lives and jobs easier. But on the other hand, we forget the other fact that computers would eliminate jobs too. For example, Manufacture of all kinds of office products the computer easily does, like typewriter, adding machine, photocopier or even CD player, DVD player, and radio. In publishing, a lot of jobs are gone, many in layout and production, since computers do layout and design faster and more accurately. Even in hotel and travel industry, there have been significant losses in administration in hotels because of significant advances in the way people book and check in. Nowadays, most bookings for hotels are made through websites instead of phoning up and having your name written in a book. Additionally, management and running of a hotel can now be done all by one person. One person can have a computer with powerful hotel management software on it which can control all functions of a hotel and allocate when and where people will arrive. Moreover, as computers take over people’s jobs, social and economical problems increase. Lack of human interactions can cause social problems. People can do banking and shopping without contacting people. It will bring less bondage between people and less respect for human beings. Furthermore, there are economical problems. Even though low payment job positions disappear quickly, high payment job positions, such as high technology based job positions, are increased. The gap between these two groups will become wider. The economical unbalance can cause a lot of economical problems as well as social problems.

Free Essays on Gap Swot Analysis

SWOT Analysis Brand name recognition and equity Gap, Old Navy and Banana Republic are three of the most well known brands in retail. The number of stores by location at the end of fiscal 2001 and 200 was 3,079 and 2,848, respectively. Gap is credited with creating the â€Å"casual basics† category of apparel, which includes khakis, t-shirts, button-down shirts, knit tops and other comfortable separates. Gap revolutionized the specialty apparel category and quickly grew to become the industry leader and spawned several imitators. In general, the specialty retail apparel industry is characterized by stores that either sell only clothing or a combination of clothing and personal care items. It is this pinpoint focus on apparel and style products that differentiates the current retail store format from its predecessor, the department store. Prior to the opening of the first enclosed shopping mall in Edina, MD in 1956 most clothes shopping was done primarily in department stores. Despite offering the convenience of being able to shop for multiple purposes under the same roof, such stores by definition lacked any real focus on clothes and thus tended to stock traditional and conservative styles. However, during the 1960’ and beyond as clothing became more associated with self-expression the department store â€Å"look ´ became less appealing. It was during this period that Donald and Doris Fisher opened the first Gap in San Francisco. The subsequent rapid proliferation of Gap retail outlets was an indicator of public’s readiness for alternatives to traditional department store clothes. Several entrepreneurs, including The Limited’s Leslie Wexner, followed the Fishers’ lead. Then, during the explosive growth of mega-malls in the early to mid-1980’s, the concept of this specialty retailer really took off. Retailers realized that they did not have to offer ... Free Essays on Gap Swot Analysis Free Essays on Gap Swot Analysis SWOT Analysis Brand name recognition and equity Gap, Old Navy and Banana Republic are three of the most well known brands in retail. The number of stores by location at the end of fiscal 2001 and 200 was 3,079 and 2,848, respectively. Gap is credited with creating the â€Å"casual basics† category of apparel, which includes khakis, t-shirts, button-down shirts, knit tops and other comfortable separates. Gap revolutionized the specialty apparel category and quickly grew to become the industry leader and spawned several imitators. In general, the specialty retail apparel industry is characterized by stores that either sell only clothing or a combination of clothing and personal care items. It is this pinpoint focus on apparel and style products that differentiates the current retail store format from its predecessor, the department store. Prior to the opening of the first enclosed shopping mall in Edina, MD in 1956 most clothes shopping was done primarily in department stores. Despite offering the convenience of being able to shop for multiple purposes under the same roof, such stores by definition lacked any real focus on clothes and thus tended to stock traditional and conservative styles. However, during the 1960’ and beyond as clothing became more associated with self-expression the department store â€Å"look ´ became less appealing. It was during this period that Donald and Doris Fisher opened the first Gap in San Francisco. The subsequent rapid proliferation of Gap retail outlets was an indicator of public’s readiness for alternatives to traditional department store clothes. Several entrepreneurs, including The Limited’s Leslie Wexner, followed the Fishers’ lead. Then, during the explosive growth of mega-malls in the early to mid-1980’s, the concept of this specialty retailer really took off. Retailers realized that they did not have to offer ...

Unreasonable Searches and Seizures

Unreasonable Searches and Seizures Free Online Research Papers The Fourth Amendment to the US Constitution provides that persons are free in their persons from unreasonable searches and seizures. A search is defined as a governmental intrusion into an area where a person has a reasonable and justifiable expectation of privacy. A seizure is defined as the exercise of governmental control over a person or thing. What is reasonable under the Fourth Amendment depends on the circumstances. For example, certain searches and seizures are considered reasonable only if the government first obtained a warrant authorizing the action, while other searches and seizures are reasonable without a warrant. There are at least six exceptions to the warrant requirement, i.e. where a warrantless search is reasonable and therefore valid under the Fourth Amendment. One of those is the plain view doctrine. Under the plain view doctrine, the police may make a warrantless seizure when they are (1) legitimately on the premises where they did the viewing; (2) discover evidence, fruits, or instrumentalities of crime, or contraband; (3) see such evidence in plain view; and (4) have probable cause to believe that the item is evidence, contraband, or an instrumentality of a crime. These requirements are set out in Arizona v. Hicks, 480 U.S. 321 (1987). As applied to this scenario, the state will be able to successfully argue that the plain view doctrine applies to the backyard drug operation. Officer Nelson responded to screaming and was able to easily see into the backyard. The boys were engaging in assaultive behavior and were injuring each other. The fence gate was unlocked, and Officer Nelson was legitimately on the premises to respond to the fight. Immediately after Officer Nelson broke up the fight and as he was turning the boys over to adults, Officer Nelson noticed baggies containing a white, powdery substance in the backyard outside the house. Officer Nelson will state that his training and experience told him that he had probable cause to believe that the baggies contained contraband because of the nature of the substance and how it was packaged. The evidence was in plain view resting on a table outside the house as he was turning the boys over to their parents. The judge will likely find that Officer Nelson was legitimately in the backyard, that the baggies did indeed contain contraband, that the baggies were in plain view, and that Officer Nelson had probably cause to believe that the baggies contained contraband. The defendants dress in a nightgown does not contribute to probable cause. The state will have the contraband admitted into evidence under the plain view doctrine exception to the Fourth Amendment. The defense may attempt to argue that evidence of the baggies should be suppressed because: (1) Officer Nelson had no legitimate reason to be in the backyard and (2) that the defendant had a reasonable expectation of privacy in the backyard to her house because it had a brick fence. Both will fail. Officer Nelsons job is to keep the public peace and respond to disturbances, such as screaming. As to the privacy argument, Officer Nelson was able to look over the fence without standing on his toes. Unless Officer Nelson is very tall, the prosecution will successfully argue that there was no reasonable exception of privacy in a fence that anyone can see over. Persons generally have no expectation of privacy in things held out to the public. That the baggies were near the patio entrance is irrelevant. If the baggies were inside the patio Officer Nelson may have needed a search warrant to search for them, but they were outside in the backyard. Regarding the marijuana cigarettes, the prosecution will similarly successfully argue that the marijuana is admissible under the plain view doctrine. The police were legitimately viewing the marijuana in the street. They fell out of the defendants purse after the snatcher dropped it, and they were in plain view. The police did not have to open the purse and go through the contents to find them. The officers will testify that their training told them that they had probable cause to believe that they were marijuana cigarettes, probably primarily based on how they were rolled and their smell. If it turns out that the cigarettes contain marijuana, the judge will likely rule them admissible under the plain view doctrine. The defense doesnt have any real defense. A very weak defense would be that the street was not a public street but an alley used for garbage trucks. This will not succeed, and the marijuana will be found admissible. Under the open field doctrine, areas outside the curtilage are subject to police entry and search. The curtilage is defined as the dwelling, outbuildings connected to the dwelling, and the land immediately surrounding the dwelling. Areas outside the curtilage are unprotected by the Fourth Amendment because these areas are considered to be held out to the public. Persons have no expectation of privacy in areas outside the curtilage. The baggies were found on a table a few yards away from the house’s patio in the backyard. The entire backyard is included in the curtilage because it is connected to the house and is surrounded by a brick fence. Under normal circumstances, the patio would be a protected area under the Fourth Amendment not able to be searched without a warrant. But as the police were already in the back yard responding to the fight, there is no Fourth Amendment violation. 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12 Words with -join

12 Words with -join 12 Words with -join 12 Words with -join By Mark Nichol The root word join is the basis of a small group of words with some sense pertaining to unity, though many originally had a legal connotation (and some still do). Here are those words and their definitions. Join itself stems from the Latin word iungere, meaning â€Å"join together,† â€Å"unite,† or â€Å"yoke.† (In Latin, i could be pronounced as a vowel or a consonant; the latter sound was equivalent to y, which came to be pronounced like j in English.) Joint originally referred to a part of the body where two bones meet; this sense was later extended to any connecting point and to a cut of meat. Joint, as a slang term for a marijuana cigarette, might derive from the fact that it is often shared, but alternatively, it may be borrowed from earlier use of the term to describe a drug syringe, though the origin of that usage is obscure. The meaning of joint as a physical location where people met, initially in the sense of a disreputable establishment, probably derived from the idea of a smaller chamber adjoining a main room, where secret meetings, perhaps involving illegal activity, could be held. (This illicit sense probably inspired the use of joint as slang for jail or prison.) The adjectival sense of joint, meaning â€Å"sharing† or â€Å"united,† developed from the noun. Something disjointed lacks order and organization; the verb form disjoint is obsolete except in the mathematical sense of having no elements in common. A joiner is a carpenter who specializes in intricate woodworking, often involving joining pieces of wood to create boxes or furniture. The word also denotes someone with a proclivity for becoming a member of clubs or other organizations. Joinder is a word essentially confined to legal usage to refer to an act of joining together; it is also a rarely used synonym for the grammatical term conjunction. However, rejoinder, originally referring to a defendant’s answer to a charge, acquired a broader sense of a response, with the connotation of an angry reply to a critical comment. (Rejoin itself, which now means â€Å"reunite,† originally connoted a response in legal proceedings.) The similar-sounding jointure refers to a joint or an act of joining, although it is mostly used in the legal sense of settlement of an estate. Adjoin originally meant â€Å"ally† or â€Å"unite,† but the later sense of â€Å"be adjacent to† became predominant; the adjectival form is adjoining. To enjoin, usually used in a legal context, is to require or prohibit. Conjoin, meaning â€Å"come together,† is most frequently seen in its adjectival form in the phrase â€Å"conjoined twins,† referring to twins whose bodies are partially combined; conjoint is the basic adjectival form. Subjoin, meanwhile, means â€Å"add† or â€Å"append.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:5 Uses of InfinitivesHomogeneous vs. HeterogeneousEach vs. Both

Deciding whether to buy or rent Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Deciding whether to buy or rent - Research Paper Example As the number of years that a property will be used increases, the advantages of buying also increase. Flexibility is another issue to consider when deciding to rent or to buy. For instance, if one wants an asset that he can leave and go for another option, renting would be the best choice for such a person. Renting means that the person is only attached to the house for only one month at a time and this means that the person can move out if and when they want. This is unlike buying, because once a property is bought, disposing the property can be a very difficult process and in the case where the owner wants to move to a different option, the owner may have to wait for months or even years before he is able to dispose the property. The other factor to consider when deciding to buy or to rent is the cost of maintenance. As Jared (20) asserts, when a property is bought, the owner is responsible for all the maintenance costs that the property will require. On the other hand, renting relieves the burden of any costs associated with maintenance of the property. For instance, if a home needs repair, the owner of the house is the one who is going to pay the cost of repair. If one intends to avoid the high costs of repairing and maintaining the property, the person may need to consider renting rather than buying the property. In cases of expensive assets, the other maintenance costs that the owner of the property will have to incur will be the insurance costs, which will be used to insure the property against any form of loss. Once a property is bought, any risk or risks associated with the property will have to be borne by the owner (William 12). Renting on the other hand means that the person does not own the risk, and that if the risk materializes, the person will not have to bear the risk. This is very important for a person seeking to own or rent a

Personally Identifiable Information (PII) Research Paper - 1

Personally Identifiable Information (PII) - Research Paper Example Information in the modern society is becoming easily available to many people. The internet in specific is one of the main sources through, which many people are obtaining information concerning other persons. Some of the search engines of the internet such as Google can provide important details of a person if well used. Therefore, the private sector as well as public sector should ensure that vital information of people is protected from being accessed by an unauthorized persons. In addition to search engines, social networks are playing a critical role in disclosing personal information, which can be used to for illegal acts. Thus, because of this, various governments and law making agencies have imposed various Acts and Laws in order to enhance Protecting Personal Information (PPI). The legal and federal agencies have a mandate to protect sensitive information of people from unauthorized access. The Privacy Act (1974) was the first legislation created to oversee that personal information is safeguarded. The Act was established amidst rising concerns on the impact of computer databases on the private rights of individuals. The Act details how, what, or when the information is to be disclosed. The State, Federal and Local agencies shall collect information to help them conducting their businesses but should properly protect the data from the unauthorized intrusion. The U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC) in partnership with ‘National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)’ established Special Publication (SP) 800-122, which protects the PII existing in databases. ‘The National Institute of Standards and Technology’ proposes that agencies should establish safeguards to ensure proper handling of the information. In this regard therefore, organizations should enforce the following; creation of policies and procedures for PPI, conducting appropriate training of employees to reduce the

Transition from Middle to High School Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Transition from Middle to High School - Essay Example In support of evidence-based practices, various Web-based collections of "best practices'" are now available, but not all programs included in such databases have been rigorously tested. Three databases that included programs broad enough to be useful in a school setting were selected. Criteria to screen and then assess available studies were used according to the process set out by the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre {EPPI-Centre) for non quantitative review's-search, screen, describe, map and refine and appraise and synthesize'. The author has also provided a clear paragraph on the method used for screening and the criteria used for exclusion and inclusion as well. The research findings of the article have highlighted that after 246 programs were located and the initial screening criteria were met, almost 242 were excluded based on the criteria. The four which were left out are as follows: '( I ) School Transitional Environmental Program (STEP); (2) Skills, Opportunity, and recognition (SOAR), formerly Seattle Social Development Project; (3) Positive Action through Holistic Education (Project PATHE), and (4) Fast Track. The results of applying the inclusion criteria are presented in Table I'. A detailed analysis of each of the four has also been provided in the article. The author has provided a very clear and concise discussi

Practical 'learning and development event' for a local UAE company in Research Paper

Practical 'learning and development event' for a local UAE company in need of a leadership capacity development training - Research Paper Example The objective of the paper has been to identify the training needs in accordance with the leadership capacity of EITC. During the observation, it was noted that the workforces of EITC comprise a diverse culture with a major inclusion of authoritative leadership style which implies that the managers follow a commanding portfolio. It is also observed that the managers follow a centralized form for managing the activities of the company. The HRD department of the company is also observed to be lacking in managing the diverse workforces in this changing and highly competitive business environment. It is owing to this reason that the company should be facilitated with effective training as well as development program. Accordingly, the four competencies including leading people, strategic management, stimulating commitment and managing change has been suggested to the HR manager in EITC for the enhancement of their skills as well as to perform effectively in the ever changing and competiti ve business environment. OVERVIEW STATEMENT Emirate Integrated Telecommunications Company (EITC) instigated its operations in the year 2006. ... In its current practices, the Emirati telecom company, i.e. EITC was reported to serve around 5 million people as customers as well as around 40,000 businesses in the local market segments as on 2011. The company is further noted to count on around 2,000 employees’ productivity to deliver superior quality services to its customers. A unique feature of the working environment in EITC is that it comprises employees belonging to diverse cultures from around 60 countries even though the company is still observed to be operating within the local market of UAE. Nevertheless, half of the senior management team as well as staff serving customers directly comprise UAE nationals (EITC, â€Å"Who we are†). Taking the virtues of its diverse workforce, the company seeks to provide better value to customers and thereby increase its leadership capability to satisfy its customers’ expectations and requirements. Accordingly, with respect to developmental training, the leaders in ETIC are observed to be mainly emphasized on equality as well as on continuous improvement of the overall workforce. Moreover, as per the vision of the company, the employees should be honest, loyal and integrated in order to execute the assigned task not only competitively but also yielding adequate sustainability. It is in this context that the working environment of ETIC has been strongly influenced by the present business scenario, where the business world has been changing continuously with immense rapidity with respect to competitions and other social, organizational as well as economic changes. The concept of globalization and the development of technologies are determined to be the major factors

Bank law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Bank law - Essay Example It has not derived any benefit from the sale of the said Nursing home for it was applied to payment of credit debts, and even the other creditors were not given any amount. Narni was dependent on this kind of arrangement because the Bank has been honoring the checques drawn over the limit and has not notify it for the dishonor. 2. The Court found that indeed the Bank committed breach of its arrangement with Narni. As deduced from the facts of the case, the acts of the bank in allowing and honoring the cheques drawn way beyond the ceiling despite the fact that there was no sufficient fund in the account of Narni constitutes an implied terms. As gleaned from the records of the case, Narni applied for overdraft facility with the Bank with ceiling of $65, 000 and when it has drawn cheques pending approval of the said application, the Bank honored the cheques even if the account was regularly in debit. When Narni asked for extension of the overdraft to $100, 000.00, the Bank continuously manifested its refusal to grant it, but continued to honor the cheques drawn beyond the limit. This kind of dealings between the Bank and Narni gave rise to implied terms, which the bank is bound. And Narni relied upon this dealing of the Bank that the latter will not refuse to honor the check without giving adequate notice. ... The following the terms are implied as a matter of fact: a). as a result of a course of past dealings between the parties; 2). as a result of custom or trade usage; and 3). to give business efficacy to the contract (Topic 6, n.d.). And for the Court to regard the implied terms as result of past dealing between the parties it must be shown that a). the terms of the collateral contract must not be inconsistent with the terms of the main the term claimed to have been used in past dealings is clearly identifiable. This is most easily done by reference to previous contractual documents; b). The previous dealings were sufficiently frequent and consistent, given the circumstances of the case, to constitute a regular course of dealing; c).the present dealing fits into that course of dealing to the extent that it can reasonably be said that the same terms should be included; d). and there is no conflict between the implied term and the express terms (Ibid.). As regards the situation between N arni and the Bank, the Court correctly held that there was an implied terms between them as a result of past dealing and course of action between them. It has ruled that "that by honouring cheques at a time when the account was well in excess of $100,000 the Bank impliedly extended the overdraft facility to â€Å"a limit of at least $100,000† and further agreed not to dishonour a cheque drawn â€Å"within the limit† without first giving adequate notice." The silence of the Bank regarding the status of the cheques drawn despite lack of funds and the previous dealings it had with Narni wherein it honors the cheques are factors relied by Narni in the conduct of

Annotated Bibliography of 5 different online sources

Of 5 different online sources - Annotated Bibliography Example In this article, Cary reflects back in history when the legal drinking age was 18. With regular patrols by the university police, students drank responsibly. Being among the 7 minority countries with a high legal drinking age of 21, task forces aimed at solving the problems of alcohol and drug abuse in colleges would not bear fruit; lowering the drinking age would. The writer concludes with remarks of preference of seeing her child drink in a well-patrolled environment than letting the child drink in secret ending up binge drinking and drug-overdosing among other vices. Supported by evidence from research conducted for over twenty years, Engs in this article argues for the lowering of the legal drinking age to 18. Engs attributes the irresponsible drinking among many of the college students to the perception of drinking as â€Å"adulthood† and â€Å"rebellion against authority.† Similar prohibition laws failed twice in the 1920s and 1850s, hence no need to go back to them again. Citing the examples of Greeks, Italians, Chinese and Jews, the drinking age should be lowered, accompanied by appropriate education, so as to quash the notion of alcohol as poison and promote responsible drinking behaviors across all age groups. In support of lowering the legal drinking age, Griggs reports on the argument by Professor Dwight B. Health of Brown University that the younger the people start drinking, the safer they become, citing cultural models of countries like Italy and France. Through this, parents get to educate their children on alcohol and deter children from irresponsible drinking behaviors. According to Griggs, Professor Heath argues that the â€Å"’forbidden fruit’ syndrome† promotes irresponsible drinking with the drinking age banned to 21. Therefore, the US should opt out of the minority countries with higher drinking age and join the majority who have the drinking age as low as 16 and promote

Bank law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Bank law - Essay Example It has not derived any benefit from the sale of the said Nursing home for it was applied to payment of credit debts, and even the other creditors were not given any amount. Narni was dependent on this kind of arrangement because the Bank has been honoring the checques drawn over the limit and has not notify it for the dishonor. 2. The Court found that indeed the Bank committed breach of its arrangement with Narni. As deduced from the facts of the case, the acts of the bank in allowing and honoring the cheques drawn way beyond the ceiling despite the fact that there was no sufficient fund in the account of Narni constitutes an implied terms. As gleaned from the records of the case, Narni applied for overdraft facility with the Bank with ceiling of $65, 000 and when it has drawn cheques pending approval of the said application, the Bank honored the cheques even if the account was regularly in debit. When Narni asked for extension of the overdraft to $100, 000.00, the Bank continuously manifested its refusal to grant it, but continued to honor the cheques drawn beyond the limit. This kind of dealings between the Bank and Narni gave rise to implied terms, which the bank is bound. And Narni relied upon this dealing of the Bank that the latter will not refuse to honor the check without giving adequate notice. ... The following the terms are implied as a matter of fact: a). as a result of a course of past dealings between the parties; 2). as a result of custom or trade usage; and 3). to give business efficacy to the contract (Topic 6, n.d.). And for the Court to regard the implied terms as result of past dealing between the parties it must be shown that a). the terms of the collateral contract must not be inconsistent with the terms of the main the term claimed to have been used in past dealings is clearly identifiable. This is most easily done by reference to previous contractual documents; b). The previous dealings were sufficiently frequent and consistent, given the circumstances of the case, to constitute a regular course of dealing; c).the present dealing fits into that course of dealing to the extent that it can reasonably be said that the same terms should be included; d). and there is no conflict between the implied term and the express terms (Ibid.). As regards the situation between N arni and the Bank, the Court correctly held that there was an implied terms between them as a result of past dealing and course of action between them. It has ruled that "that by honouring cheques at a time when the account was well in excess of $100,000 the Bank impliedly extended the overdraft facility to â€Å"a limit of at least $100,000† and further agreed not to dishonour a cheque drawn â€Å"within the limit† without first giving adequate notice." The silence of the Bank regarding the status of the cheques drawn despite lack of funds and the previous dealings it had with Narni wherein it honors the cheques are factors relied by Narni in the conduct of

The benefits and harmful of plastic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The benefits and harmful of plastic - Essay Example One of the most effective features of plastic bag is its light weight. It hardly feels on the hands when carried. They in return enable carrying large amount of weight within them. They can also be adjusted and folded into different layers making them adjustable and fixable in the small and compact spaces. The light weight makes the best choice for the domestic appliances and equipments. The lawn chairs is one of the examples in this regard which often find large amount of usage. The usage of plastic is not just limited to the shopping purposes. Plastic is largely used in the different polythene and other related items. For example the recent times have seen the usage of plastic in the manufacturing industry. The aero planes in the recent times have also seen the large amount of usage of plastic. This has been done in contrast of the heavy metal usage. The reason for using plastic is its light weight and enabling the support for high travelling at a lighter weight. Airbus one of the world’s leading planes network has considerable amount of plastic used in it for the purpose of making it more supportive towards flying the heavy and large sized aero planes flying around the world (Rosato, 2004, p. 578). It is being reported that the weight of plastic on average is multiple times smaller and lighter than the ordinary devices and materials that are otherwise used in the different products and manufacturing items. One of the renewable energy sources that are finding large application and attraction in the modern times is directly and largely dependent upon the usage of plastic. It is the solar energy systems and solar panels. The bulk of it is the plastic material used which is not only cheap in price, but light in weight and rightly suited to the usage for solar panels and other material used in the solar energy. Plastic’s another feature is its resistance to the heat and electricity. It is

The same positive comments could not be made concerning the employment of black women Essay Example for Free

The same positive comments could not be made concerning the employment of black women Essay This was a major exclusion, for Rosie the Riveter was just as likely to be black as white. Of the one million additional black workers who joined the labor force during the war, 600,000 were female, and much has now been written concerning this group of workers. Qualitative changes were, though, marginal. The raise in the number of black women workers in manufacturing was half that of black males, and most of the gains came late in the war and particularly occupational areas. Most of the new jobs were in greatly male areas of work, outstandingly the foundries and shipyards; advances for African Americans in customary categories of female employment were negligible. The utmost area of employment for black women was still the service sector, but there was a shift from private domestic service to public service. The failure of black house servants was much bemoaned: one white Alabaman recalled her black servant giving up her employment for $15 per week to earn $100 per month in the torpedo factory. In such instances it might be said that if Lincoln freed the Negroes from cotton picking †¦ Hitler was the one that got us out of the white folks kitchens. On the whole, however, as Karen Anderson accurately suggests, rather than a Second Emancipation what is significant about the war experience for black women is the degree to which barriers remained intact. 10 One of the most significant and liberating consequences of the war for black women and men alike was the movement of population. As one black woman recalled that during the war we got a chance to go places we had never been able to go before, another spoke for various Americans regardless of race when she said, The impact of the war changed my life, gave me an opportunity to leave my small town and discover there was another way of life. Of course, African Americans had experienced a Great Migration during World War I, and the emigration from the South had quickened in the 1920s. Throughout the Depression the number of African Americans leaving the former Confederate states fell from 749,000 between 1920 and 1930 to 400,000 in the thirties. In that sense, the movement of half a million blacks, (17 per cent of black Southerners as opposed to only 3 per cent of whites) during World War II was simply a resumption of the pre-Depression trends. In the period after World War II, resistance to racial stratification and racial exclusion became major political issues. Anti-colonial and civil rights movements fought for national independence and democracy more severely than ever before. They challenged the expropriation of southern resources land, labor, and primary goods by the northern metropoles. They required an end to the political dominance and exclusion that had differentiated colonial rule and racial subjection. They questioned political practices and global social structures that had suffered for centuries. These opposition movements were color-conscious, but they were usually not racially homogeneous. Indeed, anti-racist movements could typically count on a varied assortment of allies. Of course, consciousness of race and racism counted; had not the colonial and slavery-based regimes that initiate movements for racial justice also been color-conscious? This dawning anti-racist politics took diverse forms and emphasized different issues in the various settings where it emerged. Often anti-racist mobilizations overlapped with labor movements—socialist, collective, or simply trade unionist—in their condemnations of the conditions under which colored labor was presented for utilization in the former colonies as well as the metropoles. These anti-racist movements were largely harmonious with democratic ones: they condemned the old forms of political prohibiting as dictatorial, inconsistent with the libertarian and participative rhetoric that the mother countries, the winners (generally) of the recent global conflict had claimed they were fighting to protect. The global anti-racist challenge also called into question whole panoply of normal cultural icons: long established artistic, linguistic, scientific, and even thoughtful verities were revealed to be extremely problematic racially. And beyond all this, on an entirely practical level the anti-racist movements of the postwar world drew on general experiences. Millions could recognize with their political demands—most particularly those who had undergone military mobilization followed by become disillusioned return to a segregated or colonized homeland. Movement adherents and activists not simply remembered the democratic ideals they had fought for, but also sought to apply those ideals to the anti-colonial and anti-racist norms they met at home. Wartime experience gained in resisting the Axis powers translated moderately directly into national liberation and democratic movements as veterans were demobbed: in South Carolina or Vietnam, in South Africa or Indonesia, in Senegal, France, or Trinidad. The anti-racist and anti-colonial movements that sprang up all over the postwar world attained a recently transnational character, as growing northern labor demand and southern poverty sparkled widespread migration to the worlds metropolis. The world had been transformed by the war, and was enduring significant changes in the wars aftermath. The result was a strong enthusiasm, an influential summons, to complete the democratizing work begun a century before with slaverys abolition. Demographically, socioeconomically, politically, culturally, there was a worldwide break with the usual practices and established institutions of white supremacy. The racially based democratic movements that arose with this rupture demanded a series of social and political reforms from nationwide governments around the world. These ranged from decolonization to deferred enfranchisement and the granting of formal citizenship rights, from the delegitimation of state-enforced (de jure) racial isolation to the creation and completion of a politics of recognition 11 that attempted to valorize such norms as multiculturalism. These reforms were finally undertaken, although unequally; they were implemented, but less than thoroughly. Still, although framed in uncertain and sometimes incongruous ways, a great wave of racial reforms swept over the world in the postwar decades, notably from the sixties on. By the end of that turbulent decade, the descendants of slaves and ex colonials had forced as a minimum the partial taking apart of most official forms of discrimination and empire. In great numbers they had left their native reserves and isolated communities, migrating not simply to their countries urban centers but overseas to the metropoles from which they had been ruled for centuries. They had begun to participate in the limited but real new political and economic opportunities on offer in numerous national settings (notably in the northern, post-imperial countries). In those countries where relentless racist and dictatorial regimes still held sway, movements for racial equality and inclusion were revitalized by the successes achieved elsewhere, redoubled their activities in the seventies and after, and ultimately won democratic reforms as well. And yet the break was curtailed. The rupture with the white supremacist past was not—and could not be—total. in spite of these epochal developments— decolonization, the performance of new civil rights laws, the undoing of long standing racial dictatorships, and the acceptance of cultural policies of a universalistic character—the global racial order entered a new period of volatility and tension in the last decades of the twentieth century. Though enigmatic and unjust, the racial categorization and racial hierarchization of the world was a deeply recognized sociohistorical fact. No popular movement, no series of political reforms, no encounter with the moral negligence implicit in the comprehensive racism of the modern epoch, would have been enough to undo or remove it. Still, reform was preferable to in force or intransigence, even if it was also inadequate to the task of undoing the varied legacies of centuries of racial hierarchy, exploitation, and exclusion. With retrospection we can see that the various movements for inclusion and democracy would simply be partially satisfied by the reforms they could achieve. We can understand today, better than we could in the heat of political struggle, why these movements found it hard to sustain their impetus in the aftermath of reform. Most centrally, racial domination was still very much present in the reform process: the diverse states and elites that had been tackled by anti-racist opposition demonstrated their capability to withstand it by incorporating it, at least in part. In the result of such transformations—which were the very heart and soul of the break, the real meaning of attaining racial equality, of overcoming the heritage of racism, became controversial. What Du Bois had theorized approximately a century earlier as â€Å"the veil† the weird membrane of racial division that traversed both societies and individuals proved difficult to lift 12. And was its lifting even desirable? In a situation where significant racial inequality and injustice continued, where both identities and institutions still bore the indelible mark of centuries of racial domination, the claim that racism had now at last been remedied would certainly ring hollow. The veil might well survive half-hearted, symbolic, or co-optative gestures at removing it. Though many blacks remained in the South, a substantial number still moved from the country to the city as a result of the further disintegration of sharecropping and the increase of job opportunities elsewhere. The intensifying urbanization of southern blacks contributed to a breakdown in traditional race relations and, with the wider effects of the war, formed a mood of change. Jo Ann Robinson, for example, recalled that the Womens Political Council began in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1946 after the arrest of people challenging isolation on the buses. By 1955, we had members in every elementary, junior high, and senior high school, and in federal, state, and local jobs. 13. Therefore the foundations of the Montgomery bus boycott could be said to have been laid in the postwar era. Other proof of the new black mood in the South could be seen in the 10 per cent rise in the number registered to vote. Urged on by the Supreme Courts decision against the all-white primary in Smith v. Allwright in 1944 (the culmination of the NAACP campaign which began in 1923), African Americans in Mississippi, Louisiana, Georgia, Virginia, and South Carolina organized voter register drives and other political campaigns. Such campaigns were often led by or implicated returning servicemen, a group that has been seen as having a momentous role in shaping the new postwar mood of black Americans. Nothing so summarized the ambivalence of wartime experience for blacks as military service, and the history of African Americans in the armed forces persists to be a subject of great interest. The permutation of political pressures and the practical demands of winning the war helped convey about a considerable shift in military policy. The protection of segregation was declared to be official policy in 1940, and at a conference for the black press in 1941 in Washington, D. C. , War Department officials persisted that the military would not act as a sociological laboratory. Though, in practice segregation proved to be inefficient, not viable in some areas, and clearly harmful to black morale. In one example George Flynn pointed out, The armed forces could not build their Jim Crow facilities fast enough to cope with the inevitable operations of the drafts selection by numbers, and so slowed the recruitment of black servicemen 14. The incapability to provide segregated recreational facilities for all those in camps led to the beginning of an open access policy in 1944. Conflict over transportation between Southern military bases and neighboring towns led to the overture of a first-come, first served service with no segregation the same year. The most essential departures were, of course, those that came in the Navy and in the Army during the Battle of the Bulge. By the end of the war more than one million African Americans had served in diverse branches of the military. Despite the changes there can be little doubt that for many armed service was a bitter and disenchanting experience. Despite such comments, though, a recent study of the attitudes of black servicemen suggests that a much higher percentage of blacks than whites (41 per cent to 25 per cent) predictable to be better off as a result of their service, and that for many black soldiers service were an eye opening experience. Really, as one soldier wrote, black soldiers fight because of the opportunities it will make probable for them after the war. How are we to explain this obvious disagreement between the attitudes of black servicemen and their experiences? It appears that whatever the limitations and undoubtedly there were many—military service gave numerous African Americans a modicum of self-respect and often give training and skills. Service outside the South or even overseas (in Britain, for instance) provided a first taste of parity which could have a lasting effect. John Modell and his associates have shown that black veterans were twice as likely to have moved to a different region after the war as whites, and by 1947 it was estimated that 75,000 black veterans had left the South. There is also evidence of attitudinal change: Modell suggests that the impact of military service influenced the structure of [black] aspirations in a way that contributed to their unwillingness to accept the prewar structure of racial dominance. 15 Aspirations in a way that put in to their unwillingness to recognize the prewar structure of racial dominance. ‘A former member of a black tank crew expressed this more obviously when he said, After the close of hostilities, we just kept on fighting. Its just that simple. There was much left to fight for. though many white Americans supported racial change, the professional and demographic changes affecting African Americans almost always met with some confrontation from whites, mainly in the South. Of course attempts to keep Negroes in their place in the South were not new—they were often obvious amid the uncertainty and economic antagonism of the Depression years—but they reached new levels and were perhaps even more widespread during the war years. The Rankins, Bilbos, and Talmadges were enthusiastic in their defense of white supremacy, and challenges to the color line were often met with violence. Pete Daniel lists six civilian riots, above twenty military riots and mutinies, and between forty and seventy-five lynchings occurring all through the war 16. As Mark Ethridge, first chairman of the Fair Employment Practices Committee and a Southerner, declared, All the armies of the world could not force southerners to end isolation 17 Of course, the very fact of heightened white confrontation was a sign that things were changing. In innumerable ways white Americans were encountering blacks in new roles at work, in cities north and south, in politics, and in the armed services. numerous did not like it. A theme which had its origins in the 1930s and which would achieve greater strength in the postwar era was already evident, specifically the charge that those demanding developments in Americas civil rights were the crackpots, the communists, the parlor pinks of the country. ‘The more extensive mood, however, recognized the hypocrisy of fighting for freedom abroad as denying it to African Americans at home. Even Frank Dixon, the former governor of Alabama, recognized that the Huns have wrecked the theory of the master race. As President Truman declared in his message to Congress in February 1948, the world place of the United States now necessitated action in race relations. Trumans record on civil rights is still much debated. For the majority historians his actions appeared more representative than real, calculated to gain the black vote and yet not estrange the white South. Despite their limitations Trumans actions marked important new initiatives which set the program for future reform. It could be argued that the failure to turn principles into practice and deliver substantive change added to the aggravation which was to explode in the mid-1950s. Certainly any optimistic view of the postwar period has to be qualified. The occurrence of racial violence in both North and South must not be ignored: Arnold Hirsch points out, for example, that in Chicago 46 black homes were attacked between 1944 and 1946 and a total of 485 racial incidents were reported to the Chicago Housing Association between 1945 and 1950 18. But Hirsch also points to a significant change in mood and belief among African Americans in Chicago, and it is clear that the response of both blacks and whites to postwar racial conflict was affected by wartime experiences and Americas position in international affairs. Regardless of what the reservations, the catalogue of racial progress made throughout the 1940s, from the Fair Employment Practices Committee through to the beginning of integration in the armed forces, the establishing of a civil rights committee, and a series of Supreme Court decisions against favoritism in higher education and housing, coupled with employment gains, encouraged a mood of both optimism and determination among African Americans. At one point or another in U. S. history, thirty-eight states have passed anti miscegenation laws. In some instances, couples were factually roused from their bed and arrested. In 1959, one such case involved a husband and wife from the state of Virginia. Richard Perry Loving, a white man, and Mildred Jeter, a woman of African and Native American descent, had gainned a legal marriage in neighboring Washington, D. C. Believing they had not broken the law since they had taken their marriage vows in Washington, the two were impolitely surprised when they were awakened and arrested in the middle of the night for violating the state of Virginia’s anti-miscegenation laws. Unbeknownst to them, the state law integrated a decree that disallowed Virginia couples to marry across racial lines out of state and then return to Virginia to reside. The Virginia judge in the Loving case was a brutal defender and enactor of anti-miscegenation legislation. Over and above stating the fact that Virginia state law forbade whites and blacks from intermarrying, the judge reasoned that this decision reflected God’s intentions. â€Å"Almighty God created the races white, black, yellow, Malay, and red, and he placed them on separate continents. And but for the intrusion with his arrangement there would be no cause for such marriages. The fact that he separated the races shows that he did not intend for the races to mix† 19. The Lovings were given the choice of either leaving the state for twenty-five years or serving a prison sentence 20. This decision was just one in a long list of cases in which antimiscegenation legislation was upheld by state supreme court decisions. However, despite still comparatively high levels of social disapproval, increasing numbers of Americans have started interracial relationships. Several structural and cultural reasons put in to this increase in cross-racial couplings. The first and foremost legal influence is the 1967 Supreme Court decision to overturn the Loving v. Commonwealth of Virginia decree and overthrow laws that made interracial marriage a crime. Sixteen states still had anti-miscegenation legislation in 1967. An increase in interracial marriages followed the Loving verdict that repealed this legislation. A â€Å"biracial baby boom† began shortly subsequently. Close to fifty thousand children were born to black/white, interracial marriage partners in nineties alone 21. The legalization of interracial marriage approved people all across the United States the legal authorize to marry whomever they choose (assuming they were heterosexual). With this decision, interracial marriage could no longer be viewed as unusual behavior. Deviant behavior itself was touted throughout the decade of the sixties. Protests from sit-ins to draft card burnings flourished all through that era. Tradition was suspect. Many of the youth of the day came to the conclusion that following the status quo had produced both domination at home and abroad. Civil rights, anti-war, and Black Nationalist protests takes in the sixties. The Civil Rights Movement, culminating with the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965), resulted in equality under the law for blacks and other racial minorities. Protests against the Vietnam War revealed that it is excessively the poor and minorities in America who bleed in U. S. wars. The Black Nationalist movement turned racism on its head with shouts of â€Å"black is beautiful! † Spurred by aggravation at demands not met by the Civil Rights Movement, advocates of black independence gained wide support throughout the African American community in the late sixties and early seventies. Movement leaders, inspired by Malcolm X, adopted the name â€Å"black† in place of â€Å"Negro. † Malcolm X evidently differentiated between the Negro who â€Å"apologizes for his black skin† and has a â€Å"begging attitude† and the proud black man who, to a certain extent than apologizing, sees himself as â€Å"part of the vast majority [of the world] who outnumber whites, and therefore [do not] have to beg the white man for anything 22. Black nationalists demanded, rather than implored for equal rights. Black pride was manifest in the coronation of Robin Gregory as homecoming queen at Howard University in 1967. Traditionally, homecoming queens at Howard were students who came close to typifying the European style and fashion of female beauty. Most were light-skinned, with straightened hair and European features. Robin Gregory was a black activist who wore her hair in an Afro. Her election as Howard’s homecoming queen was a â€Å"pivotal point† in the history of the university. A student-led drive to transform Howard into a symbol of black pride broke forth at the coronation. Shouts of â€Å"Black Power! † spread throughout the packed auditorium as Gregory was revealed the winner of the homecoming queen election 23. Blackness, rather than whiteness, became Howard’s symbol of beauty. While many other and varied stabbings on authority and tradition took place after the Civil Rights Movement peaked, it was the successes of the Movement that encouraged the latter challenges to the status quo. The Civil Rights Movement was a watershed. The roots of the current revolution of black-white racial identity can be traced back to it. On the structural level, legislation was enacted throughout that era that encouraged the treatment and discernment of blacks as equal to whites. Culturally, the turbulence and protests of the late fifties and sixties throws in to an atmosphere in which interracial marriages and their biracial offspring were increasingly accepted by normal white America. As the sixties progressed, and Civil Rights protests were both convoyed and then followed by the War on Poverty, the Vietnam War, widespread experimentation with drugs, and sexual freedom, Americans began to turn inward. They were forced to confront defeat in both the domestic and the foreign war and frequent social upheaval at home. Throughout the seventies, individualism and interest group politics were spawned. â€Å"The Black liberation movement, the women’s movement, the lesbian and gay movements, and others that emerged in the fifties, sixties, and seventies were part of a new tradition that embraced an ‘identity oriented paradigm’† 24. Identity-focused politics overwhelmed U. S. culture. It was out of these movements that today’s multiculturalism was born. Prior to the subsistence of multiculturalism, there was little debate on how biracial persons must identify themselves. Black nationalists opposed interracial marriages. Many professed a black person marrying across the color line as a denial of blackness. In turn many African Americans, embracing â€Å"black pride,† maintained that the offspring of these parents must embrace their black heritage and identify with it completely. Meanwhile, whites continued to presume that if anyone had a black parent they were de facto black. Biracial Americans were ethnically defined by both blacks and whites as simply black. Today, though, racial identity is neither so promptly nor so easily defined. Just as the protests of the sixties challenged custom and encouraged interracial relationships, multiculturalism has expectant the affirmation of all racial combinations. Noted psychologists and psychiatrists have come â€Å"to the opinion that for a person of mixed ancestry to abandon one or the other parent’s identity [is] to detract from a clear racial identity. † Biracial support groups â€Å"came into existence in the early eighties on the explicit premise that both Black and non-Black identities [are] necessary to the well-being of both interracial marriages and their offspring† 25. The result is that biracial Americans no longer have an obvious racial identity. Lots of older children of interracial marriages cling to the belief that, in our racially divided society, the only healthy way a biracial person can racially recognize is as black. On the other hand, a rising number of younger biracial Americans are opting to recognize both sides of their racial heritage. References: References: 1. Bouvier Leon F. Peaceful Invasions: Immigration and Changing America. Lanham, Md. : (University Press of America, 1992). 49. 2. Marger Martin N. Race and Ethnic Relations. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1994. 3. Mills Candy. (Editorial) Interrace. (December 1994/ January 1995), p. 2. 4. Russell Buchanan, Black Americans in World War II, (New York, 1977) 35. 5. Richard Dalfiume, The Forgotten Years of the Negro Revolution, (Journal of American History, LV, June 1968), 6 6. Josh White, Defense Factory Blues', Opportunity, (July— September 1944), 143. 7. August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, The Origins of Nonviolent Direct Action in Afro American Protest: A Note on Historical Discontinuities, in Along the Color Line: Explorations in the Black Experience, Urbana, Ill., Chicago, and London, 1976, 345. 8. Sitkoff, Harvard, Racial Militancy and Interracial Violence in the Second World War, (Journal of American History, LVIII, 3, December 1971). 9. Sybil Lewis, in Harris et al. , The Home Front, 251. 10. Karen T. Anderson, Last Hired, First Fired: Black Women Workers during World War II, (Journal of American History, LXIX, 1, June 1982). 35 11. Taylor, Charles, et al. Multiculturalism and The Politics of Recognition. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 31. 12. Du Bois, W. E. B. The Talented Tenth. In Booker T. Washington et al. The Negro Problem: A Series of Articles by Representative American Negroes of To-Day. (Miami: Mnemosyne, 1969 [1903]), 172. 13. Jo Ann Robinson in Henry Hampton and Steven Fayer, eds. , Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s through the 1980s, (New York, 1990), 22. 14. George Q. Flynn, Selective Service and American Blacks During World War II, (Journal of Negro History, LXIX. 1, Winter 1984), 19. 15. John Modell, Marc Goulden, and Sigurder Magnusson, World War II in the Lives of Black Americans: Some Findings and an Interpretation, Journal of American History. LXXVI, 3, December 1989, 845. 16. Daniel, Going Among Strangers: Southern Reactions to World War II, 905-8. 17. Ethridge quoted in David Southern, Beyond Jim Crow Liberalism, (Journal of Negro History, LXVI, 3. Fall 1981), 211 18. Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960, Cambridge and London, 1983, 52- 53. 19. Henriques Fernando. Children of Conflict. (New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1975), 25 20. Henriques Fernando. Children of Conflict. (New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1975), 30 21. Sandor Gabrielle. The Other Americans. (American Demographics, June 1994), 16( 6):36-43. 22. Henriques Fernando. Children of Conflict. (New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1975), 91, 92 23. Henry Hampton and Steven Fayer, eds. , Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s through the 1980s, (New York, 1990), 435,436 24. Schwerner Cassie. Beyond Socialism and Identity Politics: The U. S. Left after the Fall. Pp. 32-45 in Whats Left, ed. Charles Derber, Amherst, Mass. : (The University of Massachusetts Press, 1995) 32-45. 25. Spickard Paul R. Mixed Blood. Madison: (University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 339.